It is proposed to place the following described article of French furniture in the cultural context of its period together with an identification of its maker and the importance of Royal influence at the time preceeding and after its production. Firstly however a full description of the selected article and its immediate provenance will be shown.

      This particular writing table or ‘Bureau Plat’ as it was known in 18^th century France, is an extremely important and significant item of furniture from the  ‘Jaime Ortiz-Patino Collection.’ [1] It was offered in auction[2] and can be described in the following terms:

Louis XIV Ormolu mounted Boulle Marquetry Bureau Plat, circa 1720

This particular writing table can be attributed to Andre-Charles Boulle[3] and has a rectangular top with rounded corners and black inset leather writing surface. A moulded ormolu border surrounds this. The frieze contains three shaped drawers, the centre one being fitted with a mask of Democritus on one side and Heroclitus on the other; each mask supports a brass drop handle. These centre drawers are flanked by deep scrolled ormolu mounts on either side.

The end drawers are fitted with ormolu cartouche shaped keyhole escutcheons cast with small female masks and drop handles below. These sections are veneered with panels of contre-partie [4] and moulded ormolu borders. The serpentine shaped sides are centred by ormolu masks of Bacchus and the whole is raised on cabriole legs veneered with contre-partie panels of boulle marquetry and headed at the corners by ormolu female masks with braided hair continuing to form ‘chutes’. The leg is flanked with gadrooned scrolls and acanthus leaves and finished with a small hairy paw foot.

The dimensions of the table are Height 30.5 ins. (77.5cms.), Width 77.75 ins. (198 cms.) and Depth 37ins. (94 cms.)  The immediate provenance of the piece has identified it as formerly from the collection of the Prince de Wagram.[5] This particular desk can be shown to be one of a celebrated first series of bureaux plats perfected in design by Boulle between 1700 and 1710. The accuracy of these dates is verified by an inventory drawn up listing the items that had been saved, damaged or destroyed during a fire at Boulle’s workshops in 1720. The inventory lists pieces produced for the Duc Louis Henry Bourbon .[6]

The first item on the list as saved is described as a desk covered in leather, approximately six feet long. Boulles’ innovative design for furniture, whose style was widely adapted and loosely interpreted, remained popular throughout the remainder of the 18^th century and also into the 19^th century.[7] This proving of provenance is crucially important in any sale situation.

This actual design, attributed to Boulle, is in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris. A whole series of desks are mentioned, all very nearly identical in dimension and marquetry panelling. These examples are veneered in contre-partie and premiere-parte and also depict the same masks as this desk. Boulle kept his mount mouldings and they are described further in the inventory drawn up after his death in 1732.[8]

The one important decorative device however that distinguishes one group of desks from another lies in the decoration of the ormolu mounts fitted to the corners, on the shoulder of the leg supports.  Some were fitted with satyrs’ masks, whilst others, such as this one, are fitted with female masks; some others were recorded with Chinese masks. It is interesting to draw a comparison with the famous pair of documented commodes delivered by Boulle in 1708 for Louis XIV’s rooms at the Grand Trianon at Versailles.[9] The Bureau plat and the ‘Royal’ commodes, illustrated here, are fitted with identical female masks continuing to ormolu chutes.[10] The chutes are cast with acanthus leaves continuing to hairy paw feet.[11]

There are similarities in the design and cut of the panels, all of which are surrounded by identical moulded ormolu borders. Another identical bureau plat fitted with the same female masks is to be found in the Collection of H.M. Queen Elizabeth II at Windsor Castle.[12] Although academics speak of style periods of late 17^th century Baroque[13] leading to the Rococo[14] of the 18^th century, a style label cannot always be succinctly put upon an item of decorative art, although this desk has features of the rich Italian ‘Pietro da Cortona’ style Baroque introduced to interiors in Paris of Cardinal Mazarin in 1644. The subject ‘bureau-plat’ here also has opposing ‘C’ scrolls and more slender legs, which became part of the recognised stylistic detail of Rococo.

Obviously one style could not end one day to give way to another, it was a gradual process. Johann Joachim Winckelmann in the 18^th century first applied the categories of style systematically to the history of art and projected shifting categories into the development of representation.[15]

What is interesting in cultural conceptuality is the shift of power and control affecting style and décor at this period in France. Colbert[16] established the Gobelins workshop[17] in Paris on behalf of the King. He maintained that the age of private patronage had ceased and only the King could stimulate the artistic style of the country. Furnishings of Regal magnificence were produced under the guidance of Charles Le Brun, designer. Rigid protocol governed the endless allegorical references to the power of the monarch in architecture, painting and décor. Gobelins had employed Boulle. However when Colbert died in 1683 and Le Brun was disgraced, production fell off and ceased altogether in 1694.

The perceived Royal power was also waning as the King grew older and the undoubted former control that was exercised at Versailles was being extinguished. The godlike figure of the absolute monarch, the Sun King, dwindled and retreated into the background. No intimacy or privacy had previously been possible and the King oversaw everything and denied his courtiers’ seclusion or ‘personal space’.

By the 18^th century, however, he had been defeated in battle by Marlborough, his invincibility destroyed and upon his death in 1715, the court had moved to Paris[18]and the shift was established to more intimate interiors. Magnificent but discreet Townhouses were built and perhaps the known tradition of the Dutch for more intimate interiors contributed to this swing. The Rococo frivolity was now established as a lighter fresher design than the former Baroque. A more cheerful and intimate sophisticated society sought amusement and pioneers of the new style namely Berain[19] and Lepautre[20] had produced the foundations of the changing style. The whole concept of the interior became smaller and discreet but flourished with a wave of curves and flames, “like the writhing coils of a snake” wrote the artist Dufresnoy in 1688.[21]

We consider too, evidence of genre scenes such as Boucher’s ‘Le Dejeuner,’ 1739 [22] to confirm this shift. The French taste for lighter decoratives and a move to Chinese style can also be seen. Consider the figurine on the shelf to the left of the mirror in the Boucher painting. He is ‘Pu-tai’ a symbol of Chinese domesticity and family life. Louis XIVs’ building of the ‘Trianon’ at Versailles[23]also gives us a contextual idea of French former taste and pleasures of the orient in the 17^th century. Perhaps too, an inkling of one possible role model for a later shifting in design, ideals and style that was to blossom in 18^th century France- ‘Chinoserie’ within the Rococo concept. There is no doubt however, that the documented distinction made between ebenistes and menuisiers[24] was a decisive impact on the future development of furniture making and interior design in France. This precept is particularly important when having regard to the prestige of Royal patronage and the setting up of workshops in the palace of the Louvre.[25]The situation certainly allowed Boulle and the concept of his particular designs to flourish.

It is interesting to look at two paintings from different periods in cultural context, but maybe it is crucial that they are of the same or similar subject matter if one is to attempt to draw comparisons and analyse contextual relationship of style, cultural thought and content. In this respect, the selected subjects here are the artists’ impression of people at leisure, hopefully reflecting the cultural context in which they lived, the thoughts and emotions, not only of the artist, but also of his subjects as a reflection of the taste and influences of the day.

Chronologically the first illustration is from the French Rococo period and is a painting by Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 – 1721).[26] It was executed in 1717, entitled A Journey to Cythera [27] and at the time, it violated all previous academic canon and a new category of ‘fetes gallantes’ was introduced to accommodate Watteaus’ radical style.

The second image, which was completed  in 1886 nearly 170 years after the former, is from the late 19^th. century French artist, Georges Seurat (1859 – 91).[28] The painting is called La Grande Jatte[29] and it created a sensation when shown at the last of the Impressionist Exhibition in Paris held in the year of the paintings completion.

Watteaus' painting mirrors the elegant open-air parties that were popular in 18^th century court society of France. In this depiction aristocratic couples act out polite rituals of behaviour and conversation. The true meaning and desires are discreetly hidden. Although in contemporary dress the artist has transported them to the fantasy world of Cythera.[30]

A light-hearted theme of harmony between humans and nature and rich pastel colours are all typical of the Rococo style that dominated all the arts in the first half of the 18^th century. The mood of freedom and lack of inhibition is what the putti and humans convey in this scene. The backdrop echoes a theatrical atmosphere perhaps reflecting Watteaus’ own interest in the theatre[31] and his early influences with Gillot in the ‘Italian commedia dell’arte.’  Influenced by great colourists of the past such as Rubens and the Venetian school this work is full of expression of French Rococo.[32]

Visions of graceful gallantry, as in this extract from the painting, led to porcelain figures becoming popular in Europe with models of couples and the language of fan use when chaperoned. The gallant or beau and his lady. The message conveyed in the depiction by the symbolism is perhaps ‘amor vincit omnia’- love conquers all.

As indicated by Gombrichs’ thinking,[33] Watteau was not satisfied with the actual festivities of court society and his design for interiors for the nobility, so he began to paint his own visions of life free of hardship. He conjured, in his paintings a dream life of gay picnics in fairy parks[34] where it never rained, with music and beautiful ladies and graceful lovers dressed in silks.

It reflected the taste of French upper classes in the Rococo period, particularly just prior and at the time of the Regency.[35] They were determined to enjoy life to the full again after the robust Baroque, the political and social dominance of Louis XIV and his latter years of indolence. Watteau's painting has captured the spirit of the times. Dainty colour, delicate decoration, jollity, frivolity and the feelings of freedom that the move to Paris by younger establishment had made, in rejection of the ponderings of an aging monarch.

In Voltaire’s opinion, the brief La Regence[36] had “turned everything to frivolity and jest.” This ‘new’ feeling of freedom extended right through society to architecture, interiors, arts, literature and music. The study of this important genre painting has compared Watteau's style to the music of Mozart in the independent appreciation of the feelings of society at their respective times.[37] Just as music brings images to the mind, so painting can make you imagine music. Following the lines and curves of the composition, picking out the detail, absorbing texture and colour. A parallel has been drawn between the arts. Mozart in his Neo Classical period plays with deep musical textures and colours, he loved the curving phrase and Watteau too, in his Rococo period painting.[38]

Engravings from his drawings in the1730s reinforced the direct influence on early Rococo designers in other fields.  Grotesques and Chinese figures in 1709 engraved by young Francois Boucher promoting taste for Chinese subjects.[39] Engravings after Watteau were used by Augsburg designers Englebrecht, Merz, Wachsmuth and Bickham on Worcester Porcelain in England.[40] Watteau's Gallant style, into which Boucher & Fragonard would follow, show passion and emotion of the soul. The scene of living dreams and unreality reflects perhaps the social climes of the day. Those being satisfaction of hopes and fulfilment, celebration of love, emotion and ecstasy, celebration of the moment a reflection of the time.

Images we now have of the 18^th. century are determined by paintings that Watteau executed in its first two decades. He anticipated much of what came later; today he might be referred to as a master of the avant-garde. The artists’ work here can be linked perhaps in many ways to that of Watteau, the recording of a social occasion reflecting the mood and sensualities of the people of the time. The impact on development of styles in the arts, the emotions depicted and those expressed by the subjects as perceived by the artist.

The visit to an Island, a late19^th century ‘Cythera,’ but in a different era, with different moods, setting quite a different cultural conceptuality than that of the early 18^th century. This island was known also as a love island for the rendezvous of city men and loose women.[41] In this work Suerat has depicted a Sunday by the Seine and combines innovations of the new scientific age with timeless art. Frozen in time are the social and economic influences of the day as the subjects are visiting the island of Grand Jatte, a popular recreational area for Parisians of the period.

We observe a crowd of over forty people, but with apparently individual agendas. No apparent contact between the groups and a sense of isolation. The actual composition itself is full of perceived images of the day, the unaccompanied woman fishing identified as an easy woman, using sport as a facade to her real objective. An interesting analogy, is the woman angler fishing for a man? The French word to fish “pecher” and to sin “pecher” with a different inflexion, but sounding almost the same? Notice too, the lady in the foreground with a fashionable 1880s dress of nipped-in corseted waist and bustle. Seurat is known to have used fashion plates from magazines as his mode. She leads a Capuchin monkey on a lead suggesting licentiousness. The woman possibly a prostitute feigns respectability, reflecting the hypocrisy that was a known feature of French society and culture at the time.

Seurat in his foreground also elucidates the mixing of social classes. An oarsman prostrates on his back, smoking his pipe beside a middle-class lady (notice the fan) and a top-hatted gentleman. Another reflection of the times perhaps, the darker side of the belle époque, where money ruled without morality and exploited workforces were crushed at any sign of rebellion.  Workers were supposed to spend time with their families. “The secret of working class morality lies in a Sunday day of rest.” an essay[42] in 1874 causing passionate debate.

Yet here we have apparent family scenes without the fathers, are they all rowing on the river? Suerat's method first named Divisionist, later as Pointillism, became known as part of the Neo Impressionist group. His technique was achieved with regular tiny particles of pure colour, like small dots in a mosaic. They blend the image in the eye[43] and perhaps predicting, the structural discipline of later abstract and modern art to come. It is known to be a flourishing time for the arts, pioneering ideas changing the face of art forever. Young artists exhilarated at the prospect of a new century dawning, embraced modern scientific colour theories, actively creating a modern style of art that would be expressive in the new epoch. Seurats' technique a reflection of social and economic change.[44]

Today with the advent of computer technology we can perhaps grasp his technique easier when one relates to the pixels of colour that make up a graphic image in that modern idiom. Seurat was interested in Roods’ newly published studies of light[45] to experiment his theories. He also read Chevreul's theory[46] relating to contrast when two complementary colours are juxtaposed creating effect of intensity. Interestingly, he experimented with dots of complementary colours applied directly to the border of the canvas between the image and white frame.

Social and economic influences are reflected in this work and technology and progress alluded to through access to the island by so many people. The new Railway lines and ferry to the island made it easy to reach. The suburban idylls were changing to dormitory towns with factories and cheap housing for the work force that were becoming the petite bourgeoisie, cultivated by the government of the Third Republic for their contribution to social stability. 

Incidentally, the Bois de Boulogne was still known to be decidedly exclusive and the domain of Parisian gentlemen. However in April 1887, reported the Autour de Paris, a gentlemans’wife kicked up a terrible row when she found out that he had not spent the allocated Sunday with the ‘Elite’ in Paris, but on La Grande Jatte with her chambermaid![47] Do some things possibly never change in any cultural context or period of time?

By Mike W. Bucknole, December, 2001
All written rights protected

With all due acknowledgment for the incalculable stimulation to ideas given by Elisabeth Bogden, Lecturer, Southampton Institute, Fine Arts Valuation, Antiques ( History & Collecting) Degrees.

[1] Ortizi-Patino, Jaime. Began his collection in 1950 with French snuff boxes and diversified across a whole range of items to include important French & English Furniture. See Sotheby’s New York- Sale 6300, Vol.1 Patino Collection: French Furniture. May 20, 1992. 

[2] Auction at Sotheby’s, 1334 York Avenue/ 72^nd. Street, New York on 20^th May 1992. This auction disposal was proposed when the gentleman was appointed as advisor in Europe for the Bolivian Government and took up residence in London. (Reported “The Times” 13^th May 1992.)

[3] Boulle, Andre-Charles (1642-1732) The first great French ebeniste du roi (artistic or creative cabinet maker for royalty) appointed in 1762 for Louis XIV. See Fleming, John and Honour, Hugh. Penguin Dictionary of Decorative Arts, London 1989, pp 114-116.

[4] Contre-partie is the marquetry, when the materials are reversed in that the designs are in tortoiseshell against a brass background whereas in  premiere-partie the brass is against a tortoiseshell background. They are glued together and fretted into designs and affixed as a marquetry veneer to the article decorated.

[5] Documentation exhibited at Sotheby’s’ at date of auction sale in Inventory form.

[6] Great grandson of the Grand Conde.

[7] This style of design became synonymous with Boulles' name, but it was a style and method of construction of decoration perfected by him, which had originated in Italy.

[8] “Item no. 21: une boite contenant les masques d’Heraclite et de Democrite de differentes grandeurs ciseles pesant ensemble 18 livres.” – Paris Museum of Decorative Arts-archives of Ebenistes’.

[9] ‘Trianon de porcelaine’-  Built for the Kings mistress, Madame de Montespan in 1670 and modelled on the Imperial Palace at Beijing.

[10] Description and analysis of Boulles’ work and listing of bureaux plats and masks, see Alexandre Pradere, Les Ebenistes Francais de Louis XIV a la Revolution, pp 69-109. Also J.P. Samoyault, Andre-Charles Boulle et sa famille, 1979.

[11] ‘Hairy Paw feet’ are stylised on animals’ feet, such as Lions paws.

[12] ‘Inventory of the Royal Furniture: Windsor’ Debretts, 1981.

[13] Baroque (In France Classical Baroque 1620-1690 perhaps) Catholic Church response of exuberance in form.

[14] Rococo-briefly asymmetrical cartouche, C scrolls, shells, chinoserie, rocaille (rockwork) decoration at expense of form. (In France perhaps circa 1695-1745)

[15] Gombrich, E.H. Art and Illusion-Phaidon, London 1996 p 319.

[16] Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, powerful French Cabinet Minister, who died in 1683. 

[17] Full title – “Manufacture royale des meublles de la Couronne”.

[18] Philippe, Duc d’Orleans’ Regency ruler during childhood of Louis XV. (1715-23)

[19] Jean Berain (1637-1711) Important architect changing decorative style, use of grotesques, almost anticipating the Rococo- published engravings 1710/11.

[20] Pierre Lepautre (1660-1716) son of Jean. Style typically early Rococo

[21] Ponte, Alessandra, Furniture from Rococo to Art Deco, Taschen 2000 pp 90-91

[22] Boucher, Francois- (artist) studies on canvas colloquially called ‘Coffee in the Closet’ Thornton, P. Authentic Décor: the Domestic Interior 1620-1920. London 1985 p 117

[23] Recorded in Jan Nieuhoffs’ ‘L’Ambassade de la compagnie orientale des provinces unies’. Paris 1665-See Turner, Jane. ‘From Renaissance to Impressionism’ Groveart, 2000 p.292.

[24] Ordinary furniture-makers.

[25] Information presented by Ponte (see f.n.21 above) pp 114-117 and 130-149.

[26] Watteau was admitted to French Royal Academy in 1717, two years after the death of Louis XIV. The artist died of tuberculosis when only 37 years of age.

[27] Now in the Art Institute of Chicago, Oil on canvas, 205 x 304 cm. (81 x 120 in).

[28] Seurat entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1878. He too tragically died at the young age of just 31 years of meningitis.

[29] Now  exhibited in Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Schloss Charlottenburg, Oil on canvas, 129 x 194 cm. (51 x 75 in).

[30] An island off the southern coast of Greece, the island sacred to Venus, the goddess of love. The island is where she mythologically landed after her birth. Other accounts are that the island was Paphos in Cyprus, interestingly to the Greeks she was known as Aphrodite, Venus is her Roman name.

[31] See his examples-Gilles Pierrot at the Louvre, Paris, Italian Comedians at the National Gallery of Art, Washington and Love at the French Theatre- 1716-21 now at the Gemaldegalerie, Berlin.

[32] See p. 373 Herbert Read, ed. Dictionary of Art and Artists -Thames and Hudson, London 1994

[33] E.H. Gomrich, The Story of Art, Phaidon, Oxford 1989 pp. 357–359.

[34] See Watteau - Fete in the park, about 1718, Wallace Collection London.

[35] Between 1715 and 1723 during Philip of Orlean’s short period of Regency government and liberality.

[36] See p. 278 Rose-Marie and Rainer Hagen, Masterpieces in Detail, What Great Paintings say, Taschen, Koln 2000.

[37] Robert Cumming, Annoted Art, Covent Garden Books, London 2000, p. 60

[38] See Elizabeth Bogdan, European Cultural Context-Learning Pack, Southampton Institute, p20.

[39] See p.4  of this Essay and footnote no.22.

[40] The ornamental designs of Watteau painter to Louis XIV (Edinburgh 1839) reinforced his reputation at height of Rococo revival – see Simon Jervis Design & Designers pp. 174, 327, 508, 513 & 67

[41] See Duchting, Seurat -  Taschen, Koln 2000 p.35 and B ibliography.

[42] Awarded prize by Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in Paris.

[43]See Gombrich, The Story of Art pp. 433-434 suggest the image is blended in the mind and suggests starting point of style was impressionism and perhaps reaction against formlessness. Seurat shapes almost Egyptian style, which was a radical simplification of form away from the natural appearance but toward interesting patterns.

[44] Elisabeth Bogdan, p8 European Cultural Context, Learning Pack. S.I. 2001.

[45] Ogden Rood, Students text-book of colour or modern chromatics with Applications to Art and Industry (New York 1881)

[46] Michel-Eugene Chevreul’s, De la loi du contraste simultane des coulurs et ses applications (Paris 1839)

[47] See Hagen, R-M & R, Masterpieces in Detail p 455- see also Bibliography.